Smoke Signals over Lincoln County
by J. Young
Artwork by Gregg Burch

The Apache tribes were part of the Athapascan family and, similar to other indigenous groups, they migrated south from the Arctic regions to warmer areas during the 1500s. The Apache comprised of several main tribes, including Mescalero, Jicarillas, Lipans, Kiowa, Nataina, Tuetenini, Tshilinainde, Guhlkainde, and the Tahunde bands, most of whom lived in separate factions between the Pecos and the Rio Grande, expanding into the White and Sacramento mountains. The Apache people preferred living in high altitude mountain regions during summers and moved down to the foot of the mountains during the winter. For several centuries, the Mescalero tribe resisted Mexican, Spanish and Anglo culture and authority.
The Mescalero tribe is known for their strong and robust male members, characterized by straight black hair and flat faces. These men dressed in knee-high moccasins made of Buckskin cloth, which were folded down to the ankle. They were accomplished hunters of buffalo, deer, elk, and other game. In contrast, the women gathered fruits, plants, and nuts, with a particular affinity for the Astaneh plant (Mezcal plant), which had many medicinal properties. They would gather the plant, cook it in large pits, and use it to treat various ailments such as wounds, rashes, sunburns, and chapped lips. The sap was also collected and fermented to make a potent liquor called Mezcal. The Mescalero people lived in tents, teepees, wickiup grass homes and other cloth-covered structures, frequently made of Buffalo hide. In winter, they used dog sleds to transport their belongings or supplies, dragging them on woven blankets or pieces of large dugout tree trunk slabs and bark.
The Apache people ingeniously utilized smoke signals as a means of communicating over long distances. They constructed piles of pine or cedar branches, along with damp leaves and grass, to generate smoke. Darker smoke was produced by using oil or animal dung. A wet blanket was placed over the fire to capture the smoke, which, when a sufficient amount was trapped, was released by lifting the blanket, leading to black smoke rising for miles. Regular raising and lowering of the blanket produced columns of intermittent patterns of one or three or more puffs of smoke. These signals were utilized to convey warnings, request help when required, or to indicate a new camping site. Other non-verbal communication methods included using silver or mirrors to reflect sunlight and create flashing lights, creating picture messages on stones, skins, and trees, using fire signals at night, and warpaint.
During the arrival of the Apache, the Spanish were also exploring the region. Juan de Onate, a Spanish explorer, named the Apache people as Faithful Friends, Buffalo Eaters, and “Indios Vaqueros” (Indian Cowboys). The Spanish introduced horses to the Mescalero and established a trading post in southern NM with them. However, by the 1670s, tensions grew when the Apaches discovered some of their women and children missing. Unfortunately, a Spanish Raider party was found to be responsible for kidnapping and selling their women and children as slaves. In 1680, the Apache tribe joined forces with the Anasazi Pueblo people, effectively expelling the Spanish from the region. Through a series of strategic attacks, they successfully persuaded the Spanish to abandon their settlement in Jumano.
In the 1720s, a prolonged conflict occurred between the Apache and the Comanche, which spanned over three years. Unfortunately, the Apache were ultimately defeated, which forced them to migrate further south. Soon after, they found themselves entangled in another confrontation, this time with the Spanish. In 1775, roughly 2,000 Spanish soldiers were enlisted to engage in battle against the Apache. Subsequent skirmishes ended in the loss of about 150 Apache and ultimately their defeat. Consequently, their defeat forced them to retreat further north; however, due to the Spanish’s decision to move north once again, the Apache continued to encounter hardship.
Bernardo de Galvez, a Spanish militant, assumed control of the northern portion of “New Spain” in 1790. He devised a strategy to maintain peace with the Apache tribe by weakening them from within. His approach involved the provision of liquor, food, and small firearms to lure them in.
Throughout history, the relationship between the Mescalero and surrounding settlements has been complex. The Mescalero showed initial appreciation for the introduced weapons and alcoholic drinks, and coexisted peacefully near the San Elizario military settlement. Unfortunately, this peace was short-lived. After Mexico declared its independence from Spanish rule in 1821 and began desiring Mescalero land, the Apache went on a warpath. The only areas left untouched were the old Spanish settlements. In a deplorable act, the Mexican government resorted to hiring “scalphunters” and offered payment for each Mescalero scalp as a means of terrorizing them. However, their tactics were thwarted when European and American settlers began a conflict with Mexico in the spring of 1846 and defeated them, bringing renewed hope to the Mescalero people.
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed in February 1848, resulted in significant territorial acquisition for the United States. Texas and all the land west of it, extending to the Pacific Ocean and south to the Rio Grande, were ceded to the United States. As part of this treaty, Mexico was compensated with a sum of 15 million dollars, which, in today’s currency, amounts to over five hundred million dollars.
In 1850, Lieutenant Enoch Steen of the first dragoons and his team peacefully explored the newly acquired lands and made maps. During their expedition, they came across the Mescalero Apache near the south end of the White Sands, but opted to turn back without engaging them. United States General Steven W. Kearney oversaw this peaceful possession of the area, securing it for future use. These actions were taken in a professional and diplomatic manner, with a focus on cooperation and respect towards indigenous communities and their territories.
In 1851, the Governor of New Mexico, James C Calhoun, made efforts to extend a peace offering to the Apache. As an ex-Indian superintendent, he was able to successfully arrange a meeting with the leaders of the Mescalero. On April 2nd, 1851, a peace treaty was signed with Mescalero Chiefs, Josecito and Lobo. On July 1st, 1852, another treaty was signed with Governor John Greiner. However, due to the presence of various bands of Apache residing in several different areas, it became difficult to maintain the peace. Unfortunately, several small skirmishes and incidents occurred between the Mescaleros and the new settlers and explorers, causing the treaty to falter. Despite these setbacks, Governor Calhoun’s attempts to seek peace demonstrate a commitment to resolving issues with the Apache people.
In January 1855, the newly appointed Governor David Merriweather took a decisive stance against the ongoing attacks on army explorers and declared war on the Apache. To execute this operation, 81 men from the First Dragoon’s were sent to attack them. Sadly, the attack was preempted by the Apache, who caught the First Dragoon’s off-guard, causing a heavy loss of life, including that of Captain Henry W. Stanton and his Squad. During the conflict, the Mescalero also lost about twenty men and was eventually defeated. This led them to demand answers from Santa Fe for the breach of contract as their peace treaty had been broken. Such incidents of violence prompt the Governor to evaluate his strategies carefully, and more disagreements should involve diplomatic solutions.
The United States government designated an agent, Dr. Michael Steck, to facilitate a meeting between Governor Merriweather and the Mescalero Apache on June 14th, 1855. During this meeting, a mutual understanding was reached where the Apache would relinquish their claim to all 7,680,000 acres of land to the U.S. Government. In exchange, the Mescalero Apache would be granted 1,920,000 acres of land for their own use as a reservation, as well as $72,000 to be paid in 72 instalments. It is pertinent to mention that Congress did not approve of this particular treaty.
Initially, the Mescalero were located in the vicinity just southwest of the Sacramento mountains. Nevertheless, they were not expeditiously provided with payment, supplies or provisions. Moreover, given the escalated buffalo slaughtering rate by the anglos, they encountered difficulties in hunting resulting in them having to pilfer horses for sustenance.
Finally in late 1856 Dr. Steck brought supplies given by the government. They were furnished with clothing, blankets, knives, tobacco, alcohol, food and many other provisions.
During the Civil War in 1861, New Mexico was deemed a neutral territory, despite multiple military conflicts that took place in the area. Unfortunately, the Mescalero tribe was left defenseless during this time, as Fort Stanton had been abandoned, providing an opportunity for Confederate soldiers to launch multiple attacks on their reservation. In fact the soldiers at Stanton set a few buildings on fire before abandoning their post so that the democrats could not utilize the buildings for any gains. The resulting violence also caused several members of the tribe to flee from their homes. After several coordinated assaults from the Mescalero on the Confederate forces then stationed at Stanton, the Democratic army subsequently withdrew from the region.
In 1862, Lorenzo Labadie, a New Mexican native, was appointed as the Mescaleros agent, after which peace was temporarily restored. However, that lasted just for a while. In September of the same year, General James H. Carlton ordered Scouts of the California Volunteers and Colonel Christopher Carson to re-establish the Army base at Fort Stanton. The orders were clear and direct – to exercise their authority and eliminate any Mescalero Apache who resist or disobey them.
In November, Major William McCleave of California’s First Calvary led an attack against the Mescalero, resulting in their deaths in Dog Canyon in the Sacramento Mountains. The Apache turned to Stanton for assistance and clarification. Chief Cadete and Agent Labadie then traveled together to Santa Fe for a conference with General Carlton. It is worth noting that Chief Cadete’s words remain memorable in history as he unequivocally stated, “You have driven us from our last and best stronghold, and we have no more heart. Do with us what may seem good to you, but do not forget that we are men and Braves.”
General Carlton had a strategic plan to move the Apache people to the East towards a newly constructed fort named Fort Sumner. The move was done under the safekeeping of an executive order signed by Abraham Lincoln which aimed to provide a secure haven for the Apache community. The reservation was officially referred to as the Bosque Redondo reservation. Though initially accepting, the Apache struggled with the abrupt change as they were more acclimated to mountainous terrain. They attempted to acclimate themselves to the area by planting crops and trees and constructing homes. However, they faced many setbacks, including strict boundaries imposed upon them, along with crop failures due to frost, hail, and drought during the summer. Additionally, corn borers and blight further worsened the situation. Carlton accused Labadie of corruption when there was no crop to show, running him off the reservation, forcing him to set up his agent’s office in a ranch house adjacent to the reservation line.
The tribes faced a challenging situation when a large group of Navajo relocated to live with the Apache, leading to feelings of confinement. The relocation of up to 9,000 Navajo brought strangers to the Apache’s territory, and tension between the Mescalero and Navajo began to rise. Subsequently, altercations became more frequent, resulting in fights breaking out. The Mescalero tribe believed that the agreement was for their tribe alone, exacerbating the situation. In response to these conditions, roughly 450 Mescalero left the reservation in the darkness of the night, while 20 remained behind after soldiers took a count. The complexity of inter-tribal relationships underscores the sensitivity with which relocation agreements must be approached to avoid frictions between Indigenous communities.
The tribe split up going off in many directions. Some found themselves in battle again with the Comanche who lived east of Sumner.  Most went back west to their old haunts, in the Jicarilla, White and Sacramento Mountains. Several other Apache groups went on the rampage, venting out their frustrations out on unsuspecting travelers and small squads of soldiers.
On April 17, 1868, a group of tribal members launched an attack on an army convoy near Round Mountain, which was approximately 10 miles east of Tularosa. The attack resulted in the unfortunate death of one of the drivers. A few soldiers who were caught in the ambush had no choice but to seek refuge in an old building located at the base of the mountain. The standoff between the soldiers and approximately 25 members of the Apache tribe lasted for a couple of hours. Fortunately, reinforcements arrived from Tularosa and managed to disperse the group of hostile tribal members.
On July 23rd, 1869, Argalus G. Hennessy succeeded Lorenzo Labadie as the Mescalero agent. Hennessy faced a challenging task of regaining the trust of scattered Mescalero tribes, some of whom were still on the rampage. It was imperative to develop a methodical and careful plan before undertaking any action.
On September 3rd, 1870, an unfortunate incident occurred wherein two soldiers from Stanton lost their lives while collecting firewood along with their mules outside the fort. The attack, carried out by the Mescalero, was violent in nature and one mule survived with arrows lodged in its side. The news led to the deployment of troops who were sent to take action. Major Lawrence G. Murphy, the commanding officer of an operations unit of soldiers at Fort Stanton, sent a unit led by Captain Chambers McKibben and the fifteenth infantry to pursue the killers, capturing two women and shooting down one warrior. One of the women was the wife of Chief La Paz, called “Timberhead”.
Colonel August Kautz at Stanton sent the two women to inform their men that the army only desired peace. In response, Chief Jose De La Paz, and a squad of Mescalero visited Fort Stanton in February 1871 to convey their desire for peace. La Paz was convinced by Kautz to locate all the scattered Mescalero bands and bring them to Fort Stanton to be treated well.

During the year 1870, President Ulysses S. Grant implemented the Grant Peace Program in response to the Apache situation. A total of 2 million dollars was allocated for winning over the tribal communities. To ensure proper utilization of the funds and accurate documentation of the separate reservations’ boundaries, the government established the board of Indian Commissioners. However, the program’s implementation was delayed in the New Mexico territory, prompting the Army to continue managing Indian affairs in the region. The Grant Peace Program stood as a significant step towards establishing peace and stability in the region, despite the challenges encountered.
Agent Argalus G. Hennessy’s diligent efforts resulted in the creation of a suitable reservation for the Mescalero Apache near Fort Stanton. The location, which closely resembles their original settlement, offers ample clean water sources, livestock grazing lands, and game hunting opportunities. A request for $24,404.84 was submitted by Hennessy to initiate the development process, which was subsequently approved. The reservation encompasses 200 acres of fertile farming land alongside the Bonito River, approximately 200 acres of fertile land located north of Stanton and close to Coghlan’s Ranch, and 1,000 acres of land situated between the mouth of Eagles Creek and Dowlins Mill.
The reservation was surrounded by natural borders such as the Bonito River, the Ruidoso, and Eagle Creek. These rivers were pristine and abundant with trout, making the location a source of immense satisfaction for the Chiefs and their communities. In time, Andrew J. Curtis was appointed as agent, succeeding Hennessy. Curtis established his office in Murphy’s Post Traders store for ease of access and operations.
Agent Curtis at first, struggled to put a system in place for rationing and for controlling everyday life at the reservation. In order to keep them on the land he would have to supply them with the necessities to get established.
Another challenge occurred when Curtis was unable to locate any records or logs related to the daily politics of the reservation. Despite this, he remained committed to his task and received assistance primarily from the Mescalero community.

Many Mescalero individuals relocated to Stanton’s reservation upon hearing the news. Chief Cadete, who had previously settled on the Penasco river, also agreed to move with his squad. However, due to their considerable belongings and size, they required additional assistance. Major L.G. Murphy and Colonel Kautz provided the necessary wagons and supplies to facilitate the move. After settling in, Chief Cadete met with Agent Curtis, known as “longbeard” for his impressive facial hair.
Chief Cadete made a request for the construction of a school and farming on the land where his people would stay and receive vital resources. An agreement was established after both parties shook hands. Subsequently, by the end of August of that year, a significant number of around 300 Mescalero members, including men, women and children, were present at Stanton’s reservation.
During the process of resolving financial matters, the agency faced challenges in providing for the Mescalero.
Agent Curtis worked diligently to ensure a secure environment for The Apache in their new Lincoln County residence.
However, there was an urgent need for regular rationing to maintain the trust and harmony with the Mescalero people. This task required more attention and support in order to elicit greater cooperation. Initially, supplies and food were garnered through billing The Army.
Acting through Curtis’ superiors, funding was secured from Washington DC through Grant’s Peace Program to provide support to The Army stationed at Stanton. As part of this initiative, L.G. Murphy was officially contracted to supply beef, corn and other essential provisions to Agent Curtis. Murphy, in turn, assembled a team and swiftly capitalized on these new opportunities. This marked the beginning of Murphy’s success story.
Major Murphy, who managed the Sutlers within the fort, supplied the Mescalero with essential resources such as food and blankets, demonstrating his reliability. His consistency eventually led to a contract to continue to supply agent Curtis and the Mescalero with beef, corn, and other necessary provisions.
The numbers of Mescalero were slowly rising and Murphy’s pockets began to swell. In the start Curtis distributed his first rationings in June. It consisted of 884 pounds of beef on the block, forty pounds of mutton, 1,056 pounds of cornmeal, and 109 pounds of whole corn. The total amounted to $158.25.
In July, the rations were: 10 pounds of beans, 1,559 pounds of mutton, 2,816 pounds of beef on the block, and 320 pounds of beef on the hoof. Additional supplies were 4,246 pounds of cornmeal, 186 pounds of salt, ninety-two pounds of bacon, 820 pounds of flour, 2 pounds of pork, and 329 pounds of whole corn. The total for July was $845.97. The numbers kept climbing every month: August: $1,512.97, September:  $3,048.98, October: $2,343. 60. By February 1872 the monthly bill owed to Murphy was up to  $4,323.55.
According to historical records, Lawrence G. Murphy was known to have built his business empire through the acquisition of Mescalero government contracts in a corrupt manner. During the period between late 1870 and early 1873, L.G. Murphy & Company reportedly generated $57,595 from the Indian Affairs division of the U.S. Government, which would equate to $1,312,165.17 in current monetary terms. It is alleged that Murphy may have falsified records of the number of Mescalero residing on reservations to obtain larger contracts. Additionally, it’s believed access to supplies was diverted and sold to local farmers and ranchers, which supported Murphy’s government contracts.
Unfortunately, despite his best efforts, Agent Curtis eventually became entangled in a complex situation involving L.G. Murphy. Regrettably, this ultimately led to Curtis being wrongfully accused of fraud and ultimately resigning from his role after two years of service in New Mexico.
John Tunstall, an Englishman seeking profitable contracts, established a beef outfit and a store. However, his presence posed a threat to the financial stability of Major Murphy, who was deeply involved in the area. Consequently, Tunstall was tragically killed, triggering the Lincoln County War. In due course, the nefarious schemes of Major Murphy came to light and he was discharged from the army.
During the 18-month period following Murphy’s departure, his business partners James Dolan and John Riley stepped in to fill his role. Unfortunately, Murphy’s health declined, and he passed away due to illness and alcoholism while living in Santa Fe in the fall of 1878. At the same time, the Mescalero reservation was relocated to a new area known as Southfork, near present-day Mescalero, resulting in the reservation surrounding Dr. Blazer’s property, where he owned a mill along Tularosa Creek, known as Blazer’s Mill. The agency was then entrusted to a new agent, Frederick C. Godfroy, and assisted by Murphy’s previous assistant, Morice Bernstein.
The Mescalero Reservation is located on State Route 244 that spans from Cloudcroft, NM to Ruidoso, NM, offering a scenic route through the Sacramento Mountains. The drive commences at an elevation of around 9000 feet above sea level in Cloudcroft, and stretches for approximately 35 miles through wide canyons, reaching a height of approximately 7000 feet just to the south of Ruidoso.
Please be advised that access to Native communities, sites, and events held on Tribal lands are public subject to the discretion of the Tribal communities. We kindly request that you call ahead before planning your visit as schedules may change abruptly. Thank you for your understanding and cooperation.
Visit The Mescalero Website here for posted events
https://mescaleroapachetribe.com/