Crafting Lead Bullets
Lead bullets were the cornerstone of 19th century ammunition, and casting them at home was a widespread practice. Here’s how it was done:

Sourcing Lead: Lead was readily available, often scavenged from old pipes, roofing materials, or purchased in ingots from general stores. It was favored for its low melting point (around 621°F or 327°C) and malleability, making it ideal for bullet casting.

Melting Lead: A small furnace or a simple iron ladle over a fire was used to melt lead. Blacksmiths, hunters, or homesteaders often had a dedicated setup, such as a charcoal or wood fire, to heat the metal. The molten lead was carefully handled to avoid burns or toxic fumes, though safety practices were minimal by modern standards.

Molds and Casting: Bullet molds were typically made of iron or brass and consisted of two hinged halves with a cavity shaped for a specific bullet size (44 or .50 caliber for muzzleloaders). The molten lead was poured into the mold through a small sprue hole, allowed to cool for a minute or two, and then the mold was opened to release the bullet. Excess lead (the sprue) was trimmed off with a knife or shears. Molds were often custom made or purchased, with common designs producing round balls for muskets or conical bullets for rifles like the Mini ball.

Finishing: Bullets were inspected for imperfections. If a bullet had air bubbles or cracks, it was re melted. For muzzleloaders, round balls were sometimes wrapped in a cloth patch lubricated with tallow or grease to ensure a tight fit in the barrel and improve accuracy.

This process was straightforward but required precision to ensure consistent bullet sizes, as variations could affect accuracy or fit in the firearm. 

Making Black Powder:
Black powder, the primary propellant for firearms in the 1800s, was another component often made at home, especially in remote areas. Black powder is a mixture of three ingredients: potassium nitrate (saltpeter, 75%), charcoal (15%), and sulfur (10%). Here’s how it was crafted:

Potassium Nitrate (Saltpeter): Obtaining saltpeter was the most challenging part. In the 1800s, it was often extracted from natural sources like bat guano in caves or from compost heaps rich in organic matter. A common method involved leaching nitrates from soil or manure using water, then boiling the liquid to crystallize the saltpeter. This was time consuming and required knowledge of chemistry, though crude methods were passed down through communities.

Charcoal: Charcoal was made by burning wood (often willow, alder, or softwoods) in a low oxygen environment to produce a lightweight, porous carbon. The wood was stacked in a pit or a covered container, ignited, and allowed to smolder. Once cooled, the charcoal was ground into a fine powder.

Sulfur: Sulfur was harder to source but could be purchased from apothecaries or mined in areas with natural deposits. It was ground into a fine powder to ensure even mixing.

Mixing and Grinding: The three ingredients were combined in the precise ratio (75:15:10) and ground together. Early in the century, this was done by hand using a mortar and pestle, though later, small hand cranked mills were used. The mixture needed to be uniform to ensure consistent burning. Wet mixing (adding water or alcohol) was sometimes employed to reduce the risk of accidental ignition, followed by drying the mixture into cakes or granules.

Granulation: The dried powder was broken into granules of specific sizes, depending on the firearm (finer grains for pistols, coarser for muskets). This was done by sieving or pressing the powder through screens. Properly granulated powder burned at a controlled rate, critical for safe and effective use.

Homemade black powder was less consistent than commercially produced powder, but it was functional for hunting or defense. The process was dangerous, as sparks or static could ignite the mixture, and accidents were not uncommon.

Assembling Ammunition
For muzzleloaders, ammunition was prepared as needed:

Loose Components: A shooter measured a charge of black powder (using a powder horn or flask), poured it down the barrel, followed by a patched lead ball or bullet, and rammed it down with a ramrod. Percussion caps, small copper or brass cups filled with a priming compound like mercury fulminate, were commercially produced by the 1830s and rarely made at home due to their complexity.

Paper Cartridges: By the mid 1800s, some crafted paper cartridges for muzzleloaders, especially for military use. These were made by rolling a paper tube, filling it with a pre measured amount of black powder, and attaching a lead bullet (often a Minié ball). The shooter bit or tore off the end, poured the powder into the barrel, and rammed the bullet down. Paper cartridges were a step toward modern ammunition and could be made at home with practice.

For early metallic cartridges (for revolvers like the Colt 1851 Navy), homemade production was rare due to the precision required for brass casings. However, some reloaded spent casings by casting bullets, adding black powder, and seating the bullet with a hand press.

Challenges and Risks
Making ammunition at home in the 1800s was not without risks:

Safety Hazards: Lead fumes and molten metal posed health risks, and black powder was highly flammable, with mishandling leading to explosions or fires.

Inconsistency: Homemade black powder varied in quality, affecting firearm performance. Poorly cast bullets could jam or reduce accuracy.

Time and Skill: The process was labor intensive, requiring knowledge of chemistry, metallurgy, and firearms. Mistakes could render ammunition useless or dangerous.

Legal and Social Factors: While homemade ammo was common in rural or frontier areas, urban centers increasingly relied on commercial suppliers. In some regions, producing large quantities of black powder raised suspicions of illicit activity.